Kannada Literature
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

Kannada literature is the
corpus Corpus is Latin for "body". It may refer to: Linguistics * Text corpus, in linguistics, a large and structured set of texts * Speech corpus, in linguistics, a large set of speech audio files * Corpus linguistics, a branch of linguistics Music * ...
of written forms of the
Kannada language Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native sp ...
, a member of the Dravidian
family Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...
spoken mainly in the Indian state of
Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a state in the southwestern region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as Mysore State , it was renamed ''Karnat ...
and written in the
Kannada script The Kannada script (IAST: ''Kannaḍa lipi''; obsolete: Kanarese or Canarese script in English) is an abugida of the Brahmic family, used to write Kannada, one of the Dravidian languages of South India especially in the state of Karnataka. Ka ...
. Attestations in literature span one and a half millennia, R.S. Mugali (2006), ''The Heritage of Karnataka'', pp. 173–175 with some specific literary works surviving in rich manuscript traditions, extending from the 9th century to the present. The Kannada language is usually divided into three linguistic phases: Old (450–1200 CE), Middle (1200–1700 CE) and Modern (1700–present); and its literary characteristics are categorised as
Jain Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...
,
Lingayatism Lingayatism or Veera Saivism is a Hindu denomination based on Shaivism. Initially known as '' Veerashaivas'', since the 12th-century adherents of this faith are known as ''Lingayats''. The terms ''Lingayatism'' and ''Veerashaivism'' have been ...
and
Vaishnava Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
—recognising the prominence of these three faiths in giving form to, and fostering, classical expression of the language, until the advent of the modern era. Kittel in Rice E.P. (1921), p. 14Sastri 1955, pp. 355–365Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 17, 61 Although much of the literature prior to the 18th century was religious, some secular works were also committed to writing.Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 61–65Rice E. P, (1921), p. 16 Starting with the ''
Kavirajamarga ''Kavirajamarga'' ( kn, ಕವಿರಾಜಮಾರ್ಗ) (850 C.E.) is the earliest available work on rhetoric, poetics and grammar in the Kannada language.Kamath (2001), p 90Narasimhacharya (1988), p 2 It was inspired by or written in part by ...
'' (), and until the middle of the 12th century, literature in Kannada was almost exclusively composed by the
Jains Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...
, who found eager patrons in the
Chalukya The Chalukya dynasty () was a Classical Indian dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynas ...
, Ganga,
Rashtrakuta Rashtrakuta (IAST: ') (r. 753-982 CE) was a royal Indian dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the sixth and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing their ...
,
Hoysala The Hoysala Empire was a Kannada people, Kannadiga power originating from the Indian subcontinent that ruled most of what is now Karnataka, India, Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially loca ...
Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 1, 65; Sastri (1955), pp. 355–366Rice E.P. (1921), p. 17; Kamath (1980), pp. 49–50, 67, 88–90, 114–115, 132–134 and the
Yadava The Yadava (literally, descended from Yadu) were an ancient Indian people who believed to be descended from Yadu, a legendary king of Chandravamsha lineage. The community was formed of various clans, being the Abhira, Andhaka, Vrishni, and Sat ...
kings.Dalby (1998), p. 300; Masica (1993), pp. 45–46; Kamath (1980), pp. 143–144 Although the ''Kavirajamarga'', authored during the reign of King Amoghavarsha, is the oldest extant literary work in the language, it has been generally accepted by modern scholars that prose, verse and grammatical traditions must have existed earlier.Seshagiri Rao (1994), pp. 2278–2283; B.L.Rice (1897), pp. 496–497; Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 2; E.P.Rice: (1921), p. 25 The
Lingayatism Lingayatism or Veera Saivism is a Hindu denomination based on Shaivism. Initially known as '' Veerashaivas'', since the 12th-century adherents of this faith are known as ''Lingayats''. The terms ''Lingayatism'' and ''Veerashaivism'' have been ...
movement of the 12th century created new literature which flourished alongside the Jain works. With the waning of Jain influence during the 14th-century
Vijayanagara empire The Vijayanagara Empire, also called the Karnata Kingdom, was a Hinduism, Hindu empire based in the region of South India, which consisted the modern states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa and some parts of Telangana an ...
, a new
Vaishnava Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
literature grew rapidly in the 15th century; the devotional movement of the itinerant
Haridasa The Haridasa Bhakti Sahitya devotional movement (sampradaya) originated in Karnataka, India, after Madhvacharya, and spread to eastern states such as Bengal and Assam of medieval India. Over a span of nearly six centuries, several saints and ...
saints marked the high point of this era. After the decline of the Vijayanagara empire in the 16th century, Kannada literature was supported by the various rulers, including the
Wodeyar The Wadiyar dynasty (formerly spelt Wodeyer or Odeyer, also referred to as the Wadiyars of Mysore), is a late-medieval/ early-modern South Indian Hindu royal family of former kings of Mysore from the Urs clan originally based in Mysore city. ...
s of the
Kingdom of Mysore The Kingdom of Mysore was a realm in South India, southern India, traditionally believed to have been founded in 1399 in the vicinity of the modern city of Mysore. From 1799 until 1950, it was a princely state, until 1947 in a subsidiary allia ...
and the
Nayakas of Keladi Nayakas of Keladi (1499–1763), also known as Nayakas of Bednore and Ikkeri Nayakas, were an Indian dynasty based in Keladi in present-day Shimoga district of Karnataka, India. They were an important ruling dynasty in post-medieval Karnata ...
. In the 19th century, some literary forms, such as the prose narrative, the novel, and the short story, were borrowed from English literature. Modern Kannada literature is now widely known and recognised: during the last half century, Kannada language authors have received eight
Jnanpith The Jnanpith Award is the oldest and the highest Indian literary award presented annually by the Bharatiya Jnanpith to an author for their "outstanding contribution towards literature". Instituted in 1961, the award is bestowed only on Indian w ...
awards, 63 Sahitya Akademi awards and 9
Sahitya Akademi Fellowship The Sahitya Akademi Fellowship is a literary honour in India bestowed by the Sahitya Akademi, India's National Academy of Letters.Quote: "In his acceptance speech when India's National Academy of Letters (Sahitya Akademi) in 1997 conferred its h ...
s in India.Murthy (1997), p. 190


Content and genre

In the early period and beginning of the medieval period, between the 9th and 13th centuries, writers were predominantly
Jain Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...
s and
Lingayat Lingayatism or Veera Saivism is a Hindu denomination based on Shaivism. Initially known as ''Veerashaivas'', since the 12th-century adherents of this faith are known as ''Lingayats''. The terms ''Lingayatism'' and '' Veerashaivism'' have been ...
s. Jains were the earliest known cultivators of Kannada literature, which they dominated until the 12th century, although a few works by Lingayats from that period have survived. Jain authors wrote about
Tirthankara In Jainism, a ''Tirthankara'' (Sanskrit: '; English: literally a 'ford-maker') is a saviour and spiritual teacher of the ''dharma'' (righteous path). The word ''tirthankara'' signifies the founder of a '' tirtha'', which is a fordable passag ...
s and other aspects of religion. The Veerashaiva authors wrote about
Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
, his 25 forms, and the expositions of
Shaivism Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...
. Lingayat poets belonging to the
vachana sahitya Vachana sahitya is a form of rhythmic writing in Kannada (see also Kannada poetry) that evolved in the 11th century and flourished in the 12th century, as a part of the Sharana movement. Madara Chennaiah, an 11th-century cobbler-saint who lived ...
tradition advanced the philosophy of
Basava Basaveshwara, colloquially known as Basavanna, was a 12th-century CE Indian statesman, philosopher, poet, Lingayat social reformer in the Shiva-focussed bhakti movement, and a Hindu Shaivite social reformer during the reign of the Kalyani Cha ...
from the 12th century. During the period between the 13th and 15th centuries, there was decline in Jain writings and an increase in the number of works from the Lingayat tradition; there were also contributions from Vaishnava writers. Thereafter, Lingayat and
Vaishnava Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
writers dominated Kannada literature. Vaishnava writers focused on the Hindu epics – the
Ramayana The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th ...
, the
Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuruk ...
and the
Bhagavata The Bhagavata tradition, also called Bhagavatism, refers to an ancient religious sect that traced its origin to the region of Mathura. After its syncretism with the Brahmanical tradition of Vishnu, Bhagavatism became a pan-Indian tradition ...
– as well as
Vedanta ''Vedanta'' (; sa, वेदान्त, ), also ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six (''āstika'') schools of Hindu philosophy. Literally meaning "end of the Vedas", Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, t ...
and other subjects from the
Puranic Purana (; sa, , '; literally meaning "ancient, old"Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915) is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends an ...
traditions.Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 17 The devotional songs of the
Haridasa The Haridasa Bhakti Sahitya devotional movement (sampradaya) originated in Karnataka, India, after Madhvacharya, and spread to eastern states such as Bengal and Assam of medieval India. Over a span of nearly six centuries, several saints and ...
poets, performed to
music Music is generally defined as the art of arranging sound to create some combination of form, harmony, melody, rhythm or otherwise expressive content. Exact definitions of music vary considerably around the world, though it is an aspect ...
, were first noted in the 15th century. Writings on secular subjects remained popular throughout this period. An important change during the
Bhakti ''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...
"devotion" period starting in the 12th century was the decline of court literature and the rise in popularity of shorter genres such as the ''vachana'' and ''kirthane'', forms that were more accessible to the common man.Shiva Prakash (1997) p. 163 Writings eulogising kings, commanders and spiritual heroes waned, with a proportional increase in the use of local genres. Kannada literature moved closer to the spoken and sung folk traditions, with musicality being its hallmark, although some poets continued to use the ancient ''
champu Champu or Chapu-Kavya ( Devanagari: चम्पू-काव्य) is a genre of literary composition in Indian literature. The word 'Champu' means a combination of poetry and prose. A ''champu-kavya'' consists of a mixture of prose (Gadya ...
'' form of writing as late as the 17th century.Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 167, 202 The ''champu'' Sanskritic metre (poems in verses of various metres interspersed with paragraphs of prose, also known as ''champu-kavya'') was the most popular written form from the 9th century onwards, although it started to fall into disuse in the 12th century. Other Sanskritic metres used were the ''saptapadi'' (seven line verse), the ''ashtaka'' (eight line verse) and the ''shataka'' (hundred-line verse).Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 248Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 210 There were numerous translations and adaptations of Sanskrit writings into Kannada and, to a lesser extent, from Kannada into Sanskrit. The medieval period saw the development of literary
metres The metre (British spelling) or meter (American spelling; see spelling differences) (from the French unit , from the Greek noun , "measure"), symbol m, is the primary unit of length in the International System of Units (SI), though its prefi ...
indigenous to the Kannada language. These included the ''
tripadi Tripadi (Kannada, lit. ''tri'': three, ''pad'' or "adi": feet) is a native metre in the Kannada language dating back to c. 700 CE. Definition The ''tripadi'' consists of three lines, each differing from the others in the number of feet and mora ...
'' (three-line verse, in use from the 7th century), one of the oldest native metres; the ''shatpadi'' (six-line verse, first mentioned by
Nagavarma I Nāgavarma I (c. 990) was a noted Jain writer and poet in the Kannada language in the late 10th century. His two important works, both of which are extant, are ''Karnātaka Kādambari'', a ''champu'' (mixed prose-verse metre) based romance n ...
in ''Chhandombudhi'' of c. 984 and in use from 1165), of which six types exist; the ''ragale'' (lyrical narrative compositions, in use from 1160); the ''sangatya'' (compositions meant to be sung with a musical instrument, in use from 1232) and the ''akkara'' which came to be adopted in some
Telugu Telugu may refer to: * Telugu language, a major Dravidian language of India *Telugu people, an ethno-linguistic group of India * Telugu script, used to write the Telugu language ** Telugu (Unicode block), a block of Telugu characters in Unicode S ...
writings.Rice E.P. (1921), p. 59Shiva Prakash in Ayyappapanicker (1997), p. 203Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 27Sahitya Akademi (1996), pp. 4002–4003 There were rare interactions with Tamil literature, as well.Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 29 Though religious literature was prominent, literary genres including romance, fiction, erotica, satire, folk songs, fables and parables, musical treatises and musical compositions were popular. The topics of Kannada literature included grammar, philosophy, prosody,
rhetoric Rhetoric () is the art of persuasion, which along with grammar and logic (or dialectic), is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. Rhetoric aims to study the techniques writers or speakers utilize to inform, persuade, or motivate parti ...
, chronicles, biography, history, drama and cuisine, as well as dictionaries and encyclopedias.Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 61–64Karmarkar (1947), p. 124 According to critic Joseph T. Shipley, over fifty works on scientific subjects including medicine, mathematics and astrology have been written in the Kannada language.Shipley (2007), p. 528 Kannada literature of this period was mainly written on palm leaves. However, more than 30,000 more durable inscriptions on stone (known as ''shilashasana'') and copper plates (known as ''tamrashasana'') have survived to inform modern students of the historical development of Kannada literature.Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1717 The
Shravanabelagola inscription of Nandisena The Shravanabelagola inscription of Nandisena, dated to the 7th century, is one of the early poetic inscriptions in the Kannada language. The inscription extols saint Nandisena of Shravanabelagola (a prominent place of Jain religious power and wor ...
(7th century),
Kappe Arabhatta Kappe Arabhatta ( kn, ಕಪ್ಪೆ ಅರಭಟ್ಟ) was a Chalukya warrior of the 8th century who is known from a Kannada verse inscription, dated to c. 700 CE, and carved on a cliff overlooking the northeast end of the artificial lake in ...
inscription (c. 700), and the Hummacha and Soraba inscriptions (c. 800) are good examples of poetry in ''tripadi'' metre,Sahitya Akademi (1996), p. 4392 and the Jura (
Jabalpur Jabalpur is a city situated on the banks of Narmada River in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India. According to the 2011 census, it is the third-largest urban agglomeration in Madhya Pradesh and the country's 38th-largest urban agglomeration. J ...
) inscription of King Krishna III (964) is regarded as an epigraphical landmark of classical Kannada composition, containing poetic diction in ''kanda'' metre, a form consisting of a group of stanzas or chapters.Kamath (1980), p. 83 Elegiac poetry on hundreds of ''veeragallu'' and ''maastigallu'' (
hero stone A hero stone (Vīragallu in Kannada, Naṭukal in Tamil) is a memorial commemorating the honorable death of a hero in battle. Erected between the second half of the first millennium BC and the 18th century AD, hero stones are found all over India ...
s) written by unknown poets in the ''kanda'' and the ''vritta'' (commentary) metre mourn the death of heroes who sacrificed their lives and the bravery of women who performed ''
sati Sati or SATI may refer to: Entertainment * ''Sati'' (film), a 1989 Bengali film by Aparna Sen and starring Shabana Azmi * ''Sati'' (novel), a 1990 novel by Christopher Pike *Sati (singer) (born 1976), Lithuanian singer *Sati, a character in ''Th ...
''.Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1150 According to the scholar
T. V. Venkatachala Sastry Togere Venkatasubbasastry Venkatachala Sastry, commonly known as T. V. Venkatachala Shastry, is a Kannada-language writer, grammarian, critic, editor and lexicographer. He has authored in excess of 100 books, translations and has edited collec ...
, the book ''Karnataka Kavicharitre'' compiled by Kannada scholar R. Narasimhachar lists over one thousand anonymous pieces of Kannada literature that cover an array of topics under religious and secular categories. Some fifty ''Vachana'' poets are known only by the pen names (''ankita'') used in their poems. Most Jain writings included in the list are from the period 1200–1450 CE, while Lingayat and Vaishnava writings are from later periods. Secular topics include mathematics, medicine, science of horses and elephants, architecture, geography and hydrology.Sahtiya Akademi (1987), pp. 183–184 The pace of change towards more modern literary styles gained momentum in the early 19th century. Kannada writers were initially influenced by the modern literature of other languages, especially English.Murthy (1997), p. 167 Modern English education and liberal democratic values inspired social changes, intertwined with the desire to retain the best of traditional ways.Kamath (2001), pp. 277–278 New genres including short stories, novels, literary criticism, and essays, were embraced as Kannada prose moved toward modernisation.Murthy (1997), pp. 189–190


Classical period


Rashtrakuta court

The reign of the imperial
Rashtrakutas Rashtrakuta (IAST: ') (r. 753-982 CE) was a royal Indian dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the sixth and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing their ...
and their powerful
feudatory A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain. W ...
, the
Gangas The Ganges ( ) (in India: Ganga ( ); in Bangladesh: Padma ( )). "The Ganges Basin, known in India as the Ganga and in Bangladesh as the Padma, is an international river to which India, Bangladesh, Nepal and China are the riparian states." is ...
, marks the beginning of the classical period of writings in the Kannada language under royal patronage, and the end of the age of Sanskrit epics.Kamath (1980), p. 89 There was an emphasis on the adoption of Sanskritic models while retaining elements of local literary traditions, a style that prevailed in Kannada literature throughout the classical period.Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1699 ''Kavirajamarga'', written during this period, is a treatise on the Kannada speaking people, their poetry and their language.Rice B.L. (1897), p. 326 A portion of the writing qualifies as a practical grammar. It describes defective and corrective examples (the "do's and don't's") of versification and native composition styles recognised by earlier poets (''puratana kavis''). These composition meters are the ''bedande'', the ''chattana'' and the ''gadyakatha'' – compositions written in various interspersed
metres The metre (British spelling) or meter (American spelling; see spelling differences) (from the French unit , from the Greek noun , "measure"), symbol m, is the primary unit of length in the International System of Units (SI), though its prefi ...
. In some contexts, the term ''puravcharyar'', which may refer to previous grammarians or rhetoricians, have also been mentioned.Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1474–1475 Some historians attribute ''Kavirajamarga'' to the Rashtrakuta king
Amoghavarsha I Amoghavarsha I (also known as Amoghavarsha Nrupathunga I) (r.814–878 CE) was the greatest emperor of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and one of the most notable rulers of Ancient India. His reign of 64 years is one of the longest precisely dated mo ...
, but others believe that the book may have been inspired by the king and co-authored or authored in full by Srivijaya, a Kannada language theorist and court poet.Rice E.P., (1921), pp. 25, 28Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 18Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1474, 1699 The earliest existing prose piece in old Kannada is ''
Vaddaradhane Vaddaradhane by Shivakotiacharya is the earliest extant prose work in Kannada. It is a didactic work consisting of nineteen stories and is based on Harisena's ''Brhatkathakosa''. The work is also known for mentioning the precursor to modern idl ...
'' ("Worship of Elders", 9th century) by
Shivakotiacharya Shivakotiacharya (also Shivakoti), a writer of the 9th-10th century, is considered the author of didactic Kannada language Jain text ''Vaddaradhane'' (''lit'', "Worship of elders", ca. 900). A prose narrative written in pre-Old-Kannada (''P ...
.Sastri (1955), p. 356 It contains 19 lengthy stories, some in the form of fables and parables, such as "The Sage and the Monkey". Inspired by the earlier Sanskrit writing ''Brihatkatha Kosha'', it is about Jain tenets and describes issues of
rebirth Rebirth may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Film * ''Rebirth'' (2011 film), a 2011 Japanese drama film * ''Rebirth'' (2016 film), a 2016 American thriller film * ''Rebirth'', a documentary film produced by Project Rebirth * ''The Re ...
,
karma Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...
, the plight of humans on earth, and social issues of the time such as education, trade and commerce, magic, superstition, and the condition of women in society.Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1253 The works of Jain writers Adikavi Pampa,
Sri Ponna Ponna ( kn, ಪೊನ್ನ) (c. 945) was a noted Kannada poet in the court of Rashtrakuta Dynasty king Krishna III (r.939–968 CE). The emperor honoured Ponna with the title "emperor among poets" (''Kavichakravarthi'') for his ...
and
Ranna Ranna may refer to: *Ranna, a subdivision of the town Auerbach in der Oberpfalz in Bavaria, Germany * Ranna, Estonia, a village in the former municipality Pala Parish, Estonia * Ranna (Danube), a river of Bavaria, Germany and of Upper Austria, trib ...
, collectively called the "three gems of Kannada literature", heralded the age of classical Kannada in the 10th century. Pampa, who wrote '' Adipurana'' in 941, is regarded as one of the greatest Kannada writers.Bhat (1993), p. 105 Written in ''champu'' style, ''Adipurana'' narrates the life history of the first Jain Thirtankar,
Rishabhadeva Rishabhanatha, also ( sa, ऋषभदेव), Rishabhadeva, or Ikshvaku is the first (Supreme preacher) of Jainism and establisher of Ikshvaku dynasty. He was the first of twenty-four teachers in the present half-cycle of time in Jain co ...
. In this spiritual saga, Rishabhadeva's soul moves through a series of births before attaining
emancipation Emancipation generally means to free a person from a previous restraint or legal disability. More broadly, it is also used for efforts to procure economic and social rights, political rights or equality, often for a specifically disenfranchis ...
in a quest for the liberation of his soul from the cycle of life and death.Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1180 Pampa's other classic, ''
Vikramarjuna Vijaya ''Vikramarjuna Vijaya'' (Kannada- ವಿಕ್ರಮಾರ್ಜುನ ವಿಜಯ) (''victory of the mighty Arjuna''), also known as Pampa Bharatha is a classic work of the 10th century Jain poet Pampa (902–975 AD). It is a Kannada version ...
'' (or ''Pampa Bharata'', 941), is loosely based on the Hindu epic the
Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuruk ...
.Rice E.P. (1921), p. 31 Sri Ponna, patronised by King Krishna III, wrote ''Santipurana'' (950), a biography of the 16th Jain Tirthankar Shantinatha. He earned the title ''Ubhaya Kavichakravathi'' ("supreme poet in two languages") for his command of both Kannada and Sanskrit.Narasimhacharya 1934, p. 18Kamath (1980), p. 90Rice, E.P. (1921), pp. 31–32 Although Sri Ponna borrowed significantly from Kalidasa's earlier works, his ''Santipurana'' is considered an important Jain
purana Purana (; sa, , '; literally meaning "ancient, old"Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915) is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends an ...
.


Chalukya court

From the late 10th century, Kannada literature made considerable progress under the patronage of the new overlords of the
Deccan The large Deccan Plateau in South India, southern India is located between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats, and is loosely defined as the peninsular region between these ranges that is south of the Narmada river. To the north, it is bou ...
, the
Western Chalukyas The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the Deccan Plateau, western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. This Kannada people, Kannadiga dynasty is sometimes called the ''Kalyani Chalukya'' after its regal capital at Kalya ...
and their feudatories: the
Hoysalas The Hoysala Empire was a Kannadiga power originating from the Indian subcontinent that ruled most of what is now Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially located at Belur, but was later moved ...
, the southern
Kalachuris of Kalyani The Kalachuris of Kalyani, also Southern Kalachuris, were a 12th-century Indian dynasty, who ruled over parts of present-day northern Karnataka and Maharashtra. This dynasty rose to power in the Deccan region between 1156 and 1181 CE (25 yea ...
s, the
Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri The Seuna, Sevuna, or Yadavas of Devagiri (IAST: Seuṇa, –1317) was a Medieval Indian dynasty, which at its peak ruled a kingdom stretching from the Narmada river in the north to the Tungabhadra river in the south, in the western part of t ...
and Silharas of
Karad Karad is a city in Satara district of Indian state of Maharashtra and it is 320 km (180.19 miles) from Mumbai and 159 km from Pune. It lies at the confluence of Koyna River and the Krishna River known as the "Priti sangam". The ...
.Kamath (1980), pp. 114, 132–134, 143–144 The skill of Kannada poets was appreciated in distant lands. King Bhoja of
Malwa Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the volcanic upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, it is also syno ...
in
central India Central India is a loosely defined geographical region of India. There is no clear official definition and various ones may be used. One common definition consists of the states of Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh, which are included in alm ...
presented
Nagavarma I Nāgavarma I (c. 990) was a noted Jain writer and poet in the Kannada language in the late 10th century. His two important works, both of which are extant, are ''Karnātaka Kādambari'', a ''champu'' (mixed prose-verse metre) based romance n ...
, a writer of prosody and romance classics, with horses as a mark of his admiration.Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 68 Ranna was the court poet of the Western Chalukya kings
Tailapa II Tailapa II (r. c. 973-997), also known as Taila II and by his title ''Ahavamalla'', was the founder of the Western Chalukya dynasty in southern India. Tailapa claimed descent from the earlier Chalukyas of Vatapi, and initially ruled as a Rashtr ...
and
Satyashraya Satyashraya (; ), also known as Sattiga or Irivabedanga, was a king of the Western Chalukya Empire. During a time of consolidation of the empire in the early 11th century, Satyashraya was involved in several battles with the Chola dynasty of Th ...
. He was also patronised by
Attimabbe Attimabbe (950-1020) was a noblewoman of the Western Chalukya Empire. She was born at Punganur of Chittoor district in Andhra pradesh. She was the daughter of Feudatory Mallapa of chalukya king Tailapa II, and Ponnamayya. Attimabbe’s Father ...
, a devout Jain woman. Ranna's poetic writings reached their zenith with ''Sahasa Bhima Vijaya'' ("Victory of the bold Bhima", also called ''Gada Yudda'' or "Battle of Clubs", 982), which describes the conflict between
Bhima In Hindu epic Mahabharata, Bhima ( sa, भीम, ) is the second among the five Pandavas. The ''Mahabharata'' relates many events that portray the might of Bhima. Bhima was born when Vayu, the wind god, granted a son to Kunti and Pandu. Af ...
and
Duryodhana Duryodhana ( sa, दुर्योधन, ) also known as Suyodhana, is the primary antagonist in the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata.'' He was the eldest of the Kauravas, the hundred sons of the blind king Dhritarashtra and his queen Gandhari. Being ...
in his version of the Mahabharata epic, one of the earliest poetic elegies in the Kannada language.Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 620Rice E.P. (1921), p. 32Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1149 Unlike Pampa, who glorified
Arjuna Arjuna (Sanskrit: अर्जुन, ), also known as Partha and Dhananjaya, is a character in several ancient Hindu texts, and specifically one of the major characters of the Indian epic Mahabharata. In the epic, he is the third among Panda ...
and
Karna Karna (Sanskrit: कर्ण, IAST: ''Karṇa''), also known as Vasusena, Anga-raja, and Radheya, is one of the main protagonists of the Hindu epic '' Mahābhārata''. He is the son of the sun god Surya and princess Kunti (mother of the ...
in his writing, Ranna eulogised his patron King Satyashraya and favourably compared him to Bhima, whom he crowned at the end of the Mahabharata war. His other well-known writing is the ''
Ajitha purana The Ajita Purana was written by Ranna (Kannada poet), Ranna in 993 CE narrates the story of Ajitanatha, the second ''tirthankara'' of Jainism. This is the shortest in the Kannada language. It narrates two stories of the previous births of the ...
'' (993), which recounts the life of the second Jain Tirthankar Ajitanatha.Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1024 Ranna was bestowed the title ''Kavi Chakravathi'' ("Emperor among poets") by his patron king. Among grammarians, Nagavarma-II, ''Katakacharya'' (poet laureate) of the Chalukya king
Jagadhekamalla II Jagadhekamalla II (r.1138–1151 CE) followed Someshvara III to the Western Chalukya throne. His rule saw the slow decline of the Chalukya empire with the loss of Vengi entirely, though he was still able to control the Hoysalas in the south and ...
made significant contributions with his works in grammar, poetry, prosody, and vocabulary; these are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged.Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 64–65,Rice E.P. (1921), p. 34 Among his other writings, the ''Kavyavalokana'' on grammar and rhetoric and the ''Karnataka Bhashabhushana'' (1145) on grammar are historically significant.Sastri 1955, p. 358 However, the discovery of ''Vardhamana Puranam'' (1042), which has been ascribed by some scholars to Nagavarma II, has created uncertainty about his actual lifetime since it suggests that he may have lived a century earlier and been patronised by Jayasimha II.Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1475


Hoysala period

In the late 12th century, the
Hoysalas The Hoysala Empire was a Kannadiga power originating from the Indian subcontinent that ruled most of what is now Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially located at Belur, but was later moved ...
, a powerful
hill tribe Hill people, also referred to as mountain people, is a general term for people who live in the hills and mountains. This includes all rugged land above and all land (including plateaus) above elevation. The climate is generally harsh, with s ...
from the
Malnad Malnad (; Malēnādu) is a region in the state of Karnataka in India. Malenadu covers the western and eastern slopes of the Western Ghats or Sahyadri mountain range, and is roughly 100 kilometers in width. Malnadis a region of Karnataka ...
region in modern southern Karnataka, exploited the political uncertainty in the Deccan to gain dominance in the region south of the Krishna River in southern India.Derret and Coelho in Kamath (1980), pp. 124–126 A new chronological era was adopted, imperial titles were claimed and Kannada literature flourished with such noted scholars as
Janna Janna (Kannada : ಮಹಾಕವಿ ಜನ್ನ) was one of the well-known Kannada poets of the early 13th century who also served in the capacity of a minister and a builder of temples. He graced the court of Hoysala empire King Veera Ba ...
,
Harihara Harihara (Sanskrit: हरिहर) is the fused sattvika characterisation of Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Hara) from Hindu theology. Hari is the form of Vishnu, and Hara is the form of Shiva. Harihara is also known as Shankaranarayana ("Shankara ...
,
Rudrabhatta Rudrabhatta was an influential 12th-century Kannada poet in the court of the Hoysala Empire King Veera Ballala II(r.1173–1220 CE). According to Kannada language expert Narasimhacharya, the poet was also patronized by a minister of the King.N ...
,
Raghavanka Raghavanka ( kn, ರಾಘವಾಂಕ) was a noted Kannada writer and a poet in the Hoysala court who flourished in the late 12th to early 13th century. Raghavanka is credited for popularizing the use of the native '' shatpadi'' metre (hexa m ...
,
Keshiraja Kēśirāja, also spelled Keshiraja ( kn, ಕೇಶಿರಾಜ), was a 13th-century Kannada grammarian, poet and writer. He is particularly known for authoring '' Shabdamanidarpana'', an authoritative work on Kannada grammar. According to Dravi ...
and others.Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 19–21 An important achievement during this period was the establishment of native metres in literature (the ''ragale'', the ''tripadi'', the ''sangatya'' and the ''shatpadi''). Two renowned philosophers who lived during this time,
Ramanujacharya Ramanuja (Middle Tamil: Rāmāṉujam; Classical Sanskrit: Rāmanuja; 1017 CE – 1137 CE; ; ), also known as Ramanujacharya, was an Indian Hindu philosopher, guru and a social reformer. He is noted to be one of the most important exponents o ...
and
Madhvacharya Madhvacharya (; ; CE 1199-1278 or CE 1238–1317), sometimes Anglicisation, anglicised as Madhva Acharya, and also known as Purna Prajna () and Ānanda Tīrtha, was an Indian philosopher, theologian and the chief proponent of the ''Dvaita'' ...
, influenced the culture of the region.Kamath (1980), pp. 50–52, 54–56 The conversion of the Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana in the early 12th century from Jainism to Vaishnavism was to later prove a setback to Jain literature. In the decades to follow, Jain writers faced competition from the Veerashaivas, to which they responded with rebuttals,Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p. 366 and from the 15th century, from the writers of the Vaishnava cadre. These events changed the literary landscape of the Kannada-speaking region forever.Rice E.P. (1921), pp. 45–46Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 66 One of the earliest Veerashaiva writers who was not part of the ''Vachana'' literary tradition, poet Harihara (or Harisvara) came from a family of ''karnikas'' (accountants), and worked under the patronage of King Narasimha I. He wrote ''Girijakalyana'' in ten sections following the Kalidasa tradition, employing the old Jain ''champu'' style, with the story leading to the marriage of
Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
and
Parvati Parvati ( sa, पार्वती, ), Uma ( sa, उमा, ) or Gauri ( sa, गौरी, ) is the Hindu goddess of power, energy, nourishment, harmony, love, beauty, devotion, and motherhood. She is a physical representation of Mahadevi i ...
.Sastri (1955), pp. 361–362 In a deviation from the norm, Harihara avoided glorifying saintly mortals. He is credited with more than 100 poems in ''ragale'' metre, called the ''Nambiyanana ragale'' (or ''Shivaganada ragale'', 1160) praising the saint Nambiyana and Virupaksha (a form of Hindu god Shiva).Rice E.P. (1921), p. 60 For his poetic talent, he has earned the honorific ''utsava kavi'' ("poet of exuberance"). Harihara's nephew, Raghavanka, was the first to introduce the ''shatpadi'' metre into Kannada literature in his epic ''Harishchandra Kavya'' (1200), considered a classic despite occasionally violating strict rules of
Kannada grammar Standard Kannada grammar ( kn, ಕನ್ನಡ ವ್ಯಾಕರಣ) is primarily based on Keshiraja's Shabdamanidarpana (c. 1260 CE) which provides the fullest systematic exposition of Kannada language.''Studies in Indian History, Epigraphy, and ...
.Sastri (1955), p. 362 Drawing on his skill as a dramatist, Raghavanka's story of King Harishchandra vividly describes the clash of personalities between sage
Vishvamitra Vishvamitra ( sa, विश्वामित्र, ) is one of the most venerated rishis or sages of ancient India. According to Hindu tradition, he is stated to have written most of the Mandala 3 of the Rigveda, including the Gayatri Mant ...
and sage Vashisht and between Harishchandra and Vishvamitra. It is believed that this interpretation of the story of Harishchandra is unique to Indian literature. The writing is an original and does not follow any established epic traditions.Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1181 In addition to Hoysala patronage, Raghavanka was honoured by
Kakatiya The Kakatiya dynasty (IAST: Kākatīya) was an Indian dynasty that ruled most of eastern Deccan region comprising present day Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, and parts of eastern Karnataka and southern Odisha between 12th and 14th centuries. Th ...
king Prataparudra I. Rudrabhatta, a
Smartha The ''Smarta'' tradition ( sa, स्मार्त), also called Smartism, is a movement in Hinduism that developed and expanded with the Puranas genre of literature. It reflects a synthesis of four philosophical strands, namely Mimamsa, A ...
Brahmin (believer of monistic philosophy), was the earliest well-known Brahminical writer, under the patronage of Chandramouli, a minister of King Veera Ballala II. Based on the earlier work of ''
Vishnu Purana The Vishnu Purana (IAST:, sa, विष्णुपुराण) is one of the eighteen Puranas#Mahapuranas, Mahapuranas, a genre of ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism. It is an important Pancharatra text in the Vaishnavism literature c ...
'', he wrote ''Jagannatha Vijaya'' (1180) in the ''champu'' style, relating the life of
Lord Krishna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one of ...
leading up to his fight with the demon
Banasura Bana, also referred to as Banasura (), is an asura king in Hindu mythology, ruling from the city of Śoṇitapura. He is described to be the son of Mahabali. His tale of battling Krishna is described in the Bhagavata Purana. Legend A mighty ...
.Sastri (1955), p. 364 In 1209, the
Jain Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...
scholar and army commander Janna wrote ''Yashodhara Charite'', a unique set of stories dealing with perversion. In one of the stories, a king intended to perform a ritual sacrifice of two young boys to Mariamma, a local deity. After hearing the boys' tale, the king is moved to release them and renounce the practice of human sacrifice.Sastri (1955), pp. 358–359Rice E.P. (1921), pp. 43–44 In honour of this work, Janna received the title ''Kavichakravarthi'' ("Emperor among poets") from King Veera Ballala II.Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 20 His other classic, ''Anathanatha Purana'' (1230), deals with the life of the 14th Tirthankar Ananthanatha.


Vijayanagara period

The 14th century saw major upheavals in
geo-politics Geopolitics (from Greek γῆ ''gê'' "earth, land" and πολιτική ''politikḗ'' "politics") is the study of the effects of Earth's geography (human and physical) on politics and international relations. While geopolitics usually refers to ...
of
southern India South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the States and union territories of India, Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and T ...
with Muslim empires invading from the north. The
Vijayanagara Empire The Vijayanagara Empire, also called the Karnata Kingdom, was a Hinduism, Hindu empire based in the region of South India, which consisted the modern states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa and some parts of Telangana an ...
stood as a bulwark against these invasions and created an atmosphere conducive to the development of the fine arts.Kamath (1980), p. 157 In a golden age of Kannada literature, competition between Vaishnava and Veerashaiva writers was fierce and literary disputations between the two sects were common, especially in the court of King Deva Raya II. Acute rivalry led to "organised processions" in honour of the classics written by poets of the respective sects.Sastri (1955), p. 363 The king himself was no less a writer, the romantic stories ''Sobagina Sone'' (''lit'' "The Drizzle of Beauty") and ''Amaruka'' are assigned to him.Sinopoli (2003) pp. 130–131 To this period belonged
Kumara Vyasa Narayanappa ( kn, ನಾರಾಯಣಪ್ಪ), known by his pen name Kumara Vyasa ( kn, ಕುಮಾರವ್ಯಾಸ), was an influential and classical Vaishnava poet of early 15th century in the Kannada language. His pen name is a tribute ...
(the pen name of Naranappa), a doyen of medieval epic poets and one of the most influential Vaishnava poets of the time. He was particularly known for his sophisticated use of
metaphor A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by mentioning another. It may provide (or obscure) clarity or identify hidden similarities between two different ideas. Metaphors are often compared wit ...
s and had even earned the title ''Rupaka Samrajya Chakravarti'' ("Emperor of the land of Metaphors"). In 1430, he wrote the ''Gadugina Bharata'', popularly known as ''Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari'' or ''Kumaravyasa Bharata'' in the
Vyasa Krishna Dvaipayana ( sa, कृष्णद्वैपायन, Kṛṣṇadvaipāyana), better known as Vyasa (; sa, व्यासः, Vyāsaḥ, compiler) or Vedavyasa (वेदव्यासः, ''Veda-vyāsaḥ'', "the one who cl ...
tradition. The work is a translation of the first ten chapters of the epic ''Mahabharata'' and emphasises the divinity and grace of the Lord
Krishna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...
, portraying all characters with the exception of Krishna to suffer from human foibles.Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 37 An interesting aspect of the work is the sense of humour exhibited by the poet and his hero, Krishna. This work marked a transition of Kannada literature to a more modern genre and heralded a new age combining poetic perfection with religious inspiration. The remaining ''parvas'' (chapters) of ''Mahabharata'' were translated by Timmanna Kavi (1510) in the court of King Krishnadevaraya. The poet named his work ''Krishnaraya Bharata'' after his patron king. Kumara Valmiki (1500) wrote the first complete brahminical adaptation of the epic
Ramayana The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th ...
, called ''Torave Ramayana''. According to the author, the epic he wrote merely narrated God Shiva's conversation with his consort Parvati. This writing has remained popular for centuries and inspired folk theatre such as the ''
Yakshagana Yakshagaana is a traditional theatre, developed in Dakshina Kannada, Udupi, Uttara Kannada, Shimoga and western parts of Chikmagalur districts, in the state of Karnataka and in Kasaragod district in Kerala that combines dance, music, dialogue, ...
'', which has made use of its verses as a script for enacting episodes from the great epic. In Valmiki's version of the epic, King Ravana is depicted as one of the suitors at
Sita Sita (; ) also called as Janaki and Vaidehi is a Hindu goddess and the female protagonist of the Hindu epic, ''Ramayana''. She is the consort of Rama, the avatar of the god Vishnu, and is regarded as a form of Vishnu's consort, Lakshmi. She ...
's ''
Swayamvara Svayamvara ( sa, स्वयंवर, svayaṃvara, translit-std=IAST), in ancient India, was a method of marriage in which a woman chose a man as her husband from a group of suitors. In this context, in Sanskrit means 'self' and means 'g ...
'' (''lit.'' a ceremony of "choice of a husband"). His failure to win the bride's hand results in jealousy towards Rama, the eventual bridegroom. As the story progresses,
Hanuman Hanuman (; sa, हनुमान, ), also called Anjaneya (), is a Hindu god and a divine '' vanara'' companion of the god Rama. Hanuman is one of the central characters of the Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. He is an ardent devotee of Rama and on ...
, for all his services to Rama, is exalted to the status of "the next creator". Towards the end of the story, during the war with Rama, Ravana realises that his adversary is none other than the God Vishnu and hastens to die at his hands to achieve salvation.Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 38–39
Chamarasa Chamarasa (c. 1425) was a 15th century Virashaiva poet in the Kannada language, during the reign of Vijayanagar Empire, a powerful empire in Southern India during 14th - 16th centuries. A contemporary and competitor to a noted Brahmin Kannada poet ...
, a Veerashaiva poet, was a rival of Kumara Vyasa in the court of Devaraya II. His eulogy of the saint
Allama Prabhu Allamaprabhu ( kn, ಅಲ್ಲಮಪ್ರಭು) was a 12th-century mystic-saint and ''Vachana'' poet (called ''Vachanakara'') of the Kannada language, propagating the unitary consciousness of Self and Shiva. Allamaprabhu is one of the cele ...
, titled ''Prabhulinga Lile'' (1430), was later translated into Telugu and Tamil at the behest of his patron king. In the story, the saint was considered an incarnation of Hindu God
Ganapathi Ganesha ( sa, गणेश, ), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka, and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon and is the Supreme God in Ganapatya sect. His image is found throughout India. Hindu d ...
while
Parvati Parvati ( sa, पार्वती, ), Uma ( sa, उमा, ) or Gauri ( sa, गौरी, ) is the Hindu goddess of power, energy, nourishment, harmony, love, beauty, devotion, and motherhood. She is a physical representation of Mahadevi i ...
took the form of a princess of Banavasi. Interaction between Kannada and Telugu literatures, a trend which had begun in the Hoysala period, increased. Translations of classics from Kannada to Telugu and vice versa became popular. Well-known bilingual poets of this period were Bhima Kavi, Piduparti Somanatha and Nilakanthacharya. In fact, so well versed in Kannada were some Telugu poets, including
Dhurjati Dhurjati (or ధూర్ఝటి) (c. 15th and 16th centuries, CE) was a Telugu poet in the court of the king Krishnadevaraya and was one of the '' astadiggajalu'' (Translated "Eight Mighty Elephants ") there. Biography He was born to Singam ...
, that they freely used many Kannada terms in their Telugu writings. It was because of this "familiarity" with Kannada, that the notable writer Srinatha even called his Telugu, "Kannada". This process of interaction between the two languages continued into the 19th century in the form of translations by bilingual writers.Srinatha called himself "Karnatadesakataka" (Narasimhacharya 1934, pp. 27–28)


Mystic literature


Veerashaiva

In the late 12th century, the
Kalachuris The Kalachuris ( IAST: Kalacuri), also known as Kalachuris of Mahishmati, were an Indian dynasty that ruled in west-central India between 6th and 7th centuries. They are also known as the Haihayas or as the Early Kalachuris to distinguish them ...
successfully rebelled against their overlords, the Western Chalukyas, and annexed the capital Kalyani. During this turbulent period, a new religious faith called Veerashaivism (or Lingayatism) developed as a revolt against the existing social order of Hindu society. Some of the followers of this faith wrote literature called ''
Vachana Sahitya Vachana sahitya is a form of rhythmic writing in Kannada (see also Kannada poetry) that evolved in the 11th century and flourished in the 12th century, as a part of the Sharana movement. Madara Chennaiah, an 11th-century cobbler-saint who lived ...
'' ("Vachana literature") or ''Sharana Sahitya'' ("literature of the devotees") consisting of a unique and native form of poetry in
free verse Free verse is an open form of poetry, which in its modern form arose through the French ''vers libre'' form. It does not use consistent meter patterns, rhyme, or any musical pattern. It thus tends to follow the rhythm of natural speech. Definit ...
called ''
Vachana Vachana sahitya is a form of rhythmic writing in Kannada (see also Kannada poetry) that evolved in the 11th century and flourished in the 12th century, as a part of the Sharana movement. Madara Chennaiah, an 11th-century cobbler-saint who live ...
''.Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 166–187Kamath (1980), p. 108
Basavanna Basaveshwara, colloquially known as Basavanna, was a 12th-century CE Indian statesman, philosopher, poet, Lingayat social reformer in the Shiva-focussed bhakti movement, and a Hindu Shaivite social reformer during the reign of the Kalyani Chal ...
(or Basava, 1134–1196), the prime minister of Kalachuri King Bijjala II, is generally regarded as the inspiration for this movement.Rice E.P. (1921), p. 42 Devotees gathered to discuss their mystic experiences at a centre for religious discussion called
Anubhava Mantapa Anubhava Mantapa, established by Basavanna in the 12th Century C.E. is located in Basavakalyan in Bidar district of Karnataka. It is the first religious parliament in the world, whose literal meaning is "experience pavilion", and was an academy of ...
("hall of experience") in Kalyani. Here, they expressed their devotion to God Shiva in simple ''vachana'' poems. These poems were spontaneous utterances of rhythmic, epigrammatical,
satirical Satire is a genre of the visual, literary, and performing arts, usually in the form of fiction and less frequently non-fiction, in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, often with the intent of shaming or e ...
prose emphasising the worthlessness of riches, rituals and book learning, displaying a dramatic quality reminiscent of the dialogues of
Plato Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...
.Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1324Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 191 Basavanna,
Allama Prabhu Allamaprabhu ( kn, ಅಲ್ಲಮಪ್ರಭು) was a 12th-century mystic-saint and ''Vachana'' poet (called ''Vachanakara'') of the Kannada language, propagating the unitary consciousness of Self and Shiva. Allamaprabhu is one of the cele ...
, Devara Dasimayya, Channabasava, Siddharama (1150), and Kondaguli Kesiraja are the best known among numerous poets (called ''Vachanakaras'') who wrote in this genre.
Akka Mahadevi Akka Mahadevi ಅಕ್ಕ ಮಹಾದೇವಿ (c.1130–1160) was one of the early female poets of the Kannada literature and a prominent person in the Lingayat Shaiva sect in the 12th century. Her 430 extant Vachana poems (a form of spont ...
was prominent among the several women poets; in addition to her poetry, she is credited with two short writings, ''Mantrogopya'' and ''Yogangatrividhi''. Siddharama is credited with writings in ''tripadi'' metre and 1,379 extant poems (though he has claimed authorship of 68,000 poems).Rice B.L. in Sastri 1955, p. 361Shiva Prakash 1997, pp. 167–168, 178, 181Nagaraj, 2003, p. 348 The Veerashaiva movement experienced a setback with the assassination of King Bijjala and eviction of the ''sharanas'' (devotees) from Kalyani; further growth of ''Vachana'' poetry was curtailed until the 15th century when another wave of writings began under the patronage of the rulers of
Vijayanagara Vijayanagara () was the capital city of the historic Vijayanagara Empire. Located on the banks of the Tungabhadra River, it spread over a large area and included the modern era Group of Monuments at Hampi site in Vijayanagara district, Bellary ...
.Kamath (2001), p. 153 Chieftain
Nijaguna Shivayogi Nijaguna Shivayogi (15th century) was an Indian poet and a prolific writer in the Kannada language. He lived in the 15th century. He was a follower of the Veerashaiva faith (devotee of the Hindu god Shiva), which he attempted to reconcile with the ...
originated a new philosophy called ''Kaivalya'', founded on the advaitha (monistic) philosophy of
Adi Shankara Adi Shankara ("first Shankara," to distinguish him from other Shankaras)(8th cent. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya ( sa, आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, Ādi Śaṅkarācāryaḥ, lit=First Shanka ...
, synthesised with an offshoot of the Veerashaiva faith. A prolific writer, Shivayogi composed devotional songs collectively known as the ''Kaivalya sahitya'' (or ''Tattva Padagalu'', literally "songs of the pathway to emancipation"). His songs were reflective, philosophical and concerned with
Yoga Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consciou ...
. Shivayogi also wrote a highly respected scientific encyclopaedia called the ''Vivekachintamani''; it was translated into
Marathi language Marathi (; ''Marāṭhī'', ) is an Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan language predominantly spoken by Marathi people in the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the official language of Maharashtra, and additional official language in the state o ...
in 1604 and Sanskrit language in 1652 and again in the 18th century. The encyclopaedia includes entries on 1,500 topics and covers a wide range of subjects including poetics, dance and drama, musicology and erotics.Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1165 Other well-known poet saints of the Veerashaiva tradition include Muppina Sadakshari, a contemporary of Shivayogi, whose collection of songs are called the ''Subodhasara'', Chidananda Avadhuta of the 17th century and Sarpabhushana Shivayogi of the 18th century. So vast is this body of literature that much of it still needs to be studied.


Vaishnava

The
Vaishnava Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
Bhakti ''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...
(devotional) movement involving well-known Haridasas (devotee saints) of that time made an indelible imprint on Kannada literature starting in the 15th century, inspiring a body of work called ''Haridasa Sahitya'' ("Haridasa literature"). Influenced by the Veerashaivism of the 12th century, this movement touched the lives of millions with its strong current of devotion. The Haridasas conveyed the message of Vedantic philosopher
Madhvacharya Madhvacharya (; ; CE 1199-1278 or CE 1238–1317), sometimes Anglicisation, anglicised as Madhva Acharya, and also known as Purna Prajna () and Ānanda Tīrtha, was an Indian philosopher, theologian and the chief proponent of the ''Dvaita'' ...
to the common man through simple Kannada language in the form of ''devaranamas'' and ''kirthanas'' (devotional songs in praise of god).Sastri (1955), p. 365Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 200 The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples including
Naraharitirtha Narahari Tirtha ( 1243 - 1333) was a Dvaita philosopher, scholar, statesman and one of the disciples of Madhvacharya. He is considered to be the progenitor of the Haridasa movement along with Sripadaraja. Though only two of his scholarly wor ...
,
Jayatirtha Sri Jayatirtha (), ''also known as'' Teekacharya () (1345 - 1388), was a Hindu philosopher, dialectician, polemicist and the sixth pontiff of Madhvacharya Peetha from (1365 – 1388). He is considered to be one of the most important seers in ...
,
Vyasatirtha Vyāsatīrtha (. 1460 – 1539), also called ''Vyasaraja'' or ''Chandrikacharya'', was a Hindu philosopher, scholar, polemicist, commentator and poet belonging to the Madhwacharya's Dvaita order of Vedanta. As the patron saint of the Vijay ...
,
Sripadaraya Sripadaraja ( sa, श्रीपादराज; ) or Sripadaraya, also known by his pontifical name Lakshminarayana Tirtha (1422 - 1480), was a Hindu Dvaita philosopher, scholar and composer and the pontiff of the Madhvacharya mutt at Mulb ...
,
Vadirajatirtha Sri Vadiraja Teertharu (1480 – 1600) was a Dvaita philosopher, poet, traveller and mystic. A polymath of his time, he authored many works, often polemical, on Madhva theology and metaphysics. Additionally, he composed numerous poems and as ...
,
Purandara Dasa Purandara Dasa (IAST: Purandara dāsa) ( 1470 – 1565) was a Haridasa philosopher and a follower of Madhwacharya 's Dwaitha philosophy -saint from present-day Karnataka, India. He was a composer, singer and one of the chief founding-prop ...
, and
Kanaka Dasa Kanaka Dasa (1509–1609) was a Haridasa saint and philosopher, popularly called Daasashreshta Kanakadasa (ದಾಸಶ್ರೇಷ್ಠ ಕನಕದಾಸ). He was a renowned composer of Carnatic music, poet, reformer and musician. He is kn ...
.Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 192–200
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (; born Vishvambhar Mishra) was a 15th-century Indian saint who is considered to be the combined avatar of Radha and Krishna by his disciples and various scriptures. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's mode of worshipping Krishna ...
, a prominent saint from distant
Bengal Bengal ( ; bn, বাংলা/বঙ্গ, translit=Bānglā/Bôngô, ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal, predom ...
, visited the region in 1510, further stimulating the devotional movement. Purandara Dasa (1484–1564), a wandering bard, is believed to have composed 475,000 songs in the Kannada and
Sanskrit language Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the lat ...
s, though only about 1,000 songs are known today. Composed in various ''
ragas A ''raga'' or ''raag'' (; also ''raaga'' or ''ragam''; ) is a melodic framework for improvisation in Indian classical music akin to a melodic mode. The ''rāga'' is a unique and central feature of the classical Indian music tradition, and as a ...
'', and often ending with a salutation to the Hindu deity
Vittala Vithoba, also known as Vi(t)thal(a) and Panduranga, is a Hindu deity predominantly worshipped in the Indian state of Maharashtra and Karnataka. He is generally considered as a manifestation of the god Vishnu, or his avatar Krishna. Vithoba is of ...
, his compositions presented the essence of the ''
Upanishads The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...
'' and the ''
Puranas Purana (; sa, , '; literally meaning "ancient, old"Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915) is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends an ...
'' in simple yet expressive language. He also devised a system by which the common man could learn
Carnatic music Carnatic music, known as or in the Dravidian languages, South Indian languages, is a system of music commonly associated with South India, including the modern Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, an ...
, and codified the
musical composition Musical composition can refer to an original piece or work of music, either vocal or instrumental, the structure of a musical piece or to the process of creating or writing a new piece of music. People who create new compositions are called ...
forms '' svaravalis'', ''alankaras'' ("figure of speech") and ''
geethams Geetam, (Sanskrit: गीतम्; gītaṃ) the simplest music form in Carnatic music, was created by Purandara Dasa in order to introduce '' talas'' with '' sāhityaṃ'' (lyrics). Gītaṃ literally means "song" in Sanskrit. Structure A g ...
''. Owing to such contributions, Purandara Dasa earned the honorific ''Karnataka Sangeeta Pitamaha'' ("Father of Carnatic Music").Moorthy (2001), p. 67Iyer (2006), p. 93Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 196–197 Kanaka Dasa (whose birth name was Thimmappa Nayaka, 1509–1609) of Kaginele (in modern
Haveri district Haveri is a district in the state of Karnataka, India. As of 2011, it had a population of 1,597,668, out of which 20.78% were urban residents. The district headquarters is Haveri. Name of the place Haveri is derived from two Kannada words "Hav ...
) was an
ascetic Asceticism (; from the el, ἄσκησις, áskesis, exercise', 'training) is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from sensual pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world for their p ...
and spiritual seeker who authored important writings such as ''
Mohanatarangini Mohanatarangini (River of delight) is the first work of Kanakadasa (1509–1609), a prominent literary figure in Kannada literature whose works are mostly in the ''Sangatya'' (composition meant to be sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrume ...
'' ("River of Delight"), the story of the Hindu god Krishna in ''sangatya'' metre; ''Nrisimhastava'', a work dealing with glory of god
Narasimha Narasimha ( sa, नरसिंह, lit=man-lion, ), sometimes rendered Narasingha, is the fourth avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu. He is regarded to have incarnated in the form of a part-lion, part-man being to slay Hiranyakashipu, to end rel ...
; ''Nalacharita'', the story of
Nala Nala (Sanskrit: नल) is a character in the ''Vana Parva'' book of the ''Mahabharata''. He was the king of Nishadha Kingdom and the son of Veerasena. Nala was known for his skill with horses and for his culinary expertise. He married prince ...
, noted for its narration; and ''Hari Bhaktisara'', a spontaneous writing on devotion in ''shatpadi'' metre. The latter writing, which deals with ''niti'' (morals), ''bhakti'' (devotion) and ''vairagya'' (renunciation) has become popular as a standard book of learning for children.Rice E.P. (1921), p. 80 Kanaka Dasa authored a unique allegorical poem titled ''Ramadhanya Charitre'' ("Story of Rama's Chosen Grain"), which exalts ragi over
rice Rice is the seed of the grass species ''Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice) or less commonly ''Oryza glaberrima ''Oryza glaberrima'', commonly known as African rice, is one of the two domesticated rice species. It was first domesticated and grown i ...
. Apart from these classics, about 240 songs written by the Kanaka Dasa are available today.Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 198–200 The Haridasa movement returned to prominence from the 17th through 19th centuries, producing as many as 300 poets in this genre; well known among them are
Vijaya Dasa Vijaya Dasa ( kn, ವಿಜಯದಾಸ) (c. 1682– c. 1755) was a prominent saint from the Haridasa tradition of Karnataka, India in the 18th century, and a scholar of the Dvaita philosophical tradition. Along with contemporary haridasa saint ...
(1682–1755), Gopala Dasa (1721–1769), Jagannatha Dasa (1728–1809), Mahipathi Dasa (1750), Helavanakatte Giriamma and others.Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 200–201 Over time, the movement's devotional songs inspired a form of religious and
didactic Didacticism is a philosophy that emphasizes instructional and informative qualities in literature, art, and design. In art, design, architecture, and landscape, didacticism is an emerging conceptual approach that is driven by the urgent need to ...
performing art of the Vaishnava people called the
Harikatha ''Harikatha'' (Kannada: ಹರಿಕಥೆ : ''Harikathe''; Telugu: హరికథ : ''Harikatha;'' Marathi: हरीपाठ '': Haripatha'', ), also known as ''Harikatha Kaalakshepam'' in Telugu and Tamil (), is a form of Hindu tradition ...
("Stories of Hari"). Similar developments were seen among the followers of the Veerashaiva faith who popularised the ''Shivakatha'' ("Stories of Shiva").Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1551


Mysore and Keladi period

With the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire, the
Kingdom of Mysore The Kingdom of Mysore was a realm in South India, southern India, traditionally believed to have been founded in 1399 in the vicinity of the modern city of Mysore. From 1799 until 1950, it was a princely state, until 1947 in a subsidiary allia ...
(ಮೈಸೂರು ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ) (1565–1947) and the kingdom of the
Keladi Nayaka Nayakas of Keladi (1499–1763), also known as Nayakas of Bednore and Ikkeri Nayakas, were an Indian dynasty based in Keladi in present-day Shimoga district of Karnataka, India. They were an important ruling dynasty in post-medieval Karnata ...
s (1565–1763) rose to power in the southern and western regions of modern Karnataka respectively. Production of literary texts covering various themes flourished in these courts.Nagaraj (2003) p. 377 The Mysore court was adorned by eminent writers who authored encyclopaedias, epics, and religious commentaries, and composers and musicians. The Keladi court is better known for writings on Veerashaiva doctrine.Nagaraj (2003), p. 378 The Mysore kings themselves were accomplished in the fine arts and made important contributions.Pranesh (2003), preface chapter p. i–iiiKamath (2001), pp. 229–230Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 23–26 A unique and native form of poetic literature with dramatic representation called ''
Yakshagana Yakshagaana is a traditional theatre, developed in Dakshina Kannada, Udupi, Uttara Kannada, Shimoga and western parts of Chikmagalur districts, in the state of Karnataka and in Kasaragod district in Kerala that combines dance, music, dialogue, ...
'' gained popularity in the 18th century.Kamath (1980), p. 281 ''Geetha Gopala'', a well-known treatise on music, is ascribed to King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar (1673–1704), the earliest composer of the dynasty, who went by the honorific ''Sahitya Vidyanikasha Prastharam'' ("Expert in literature").Pranesh (2003), p. 20 Inspired by Jayadeva's ''Geetha Govinda'' in Sanskrit, it was written in ''saptapadi'' metre. This is the first writing to propagate the Vaishnava faith in the Kannada language.Pranesh (2003), p. 21 Also writing in this periodNarasimhacharya (1934), p. 24Prasad (1987), p. 16 was
Sarvajna Sarvajña (Kannada: ) was a Kannada poet, pragmatist and philosopher of the 16th century. The word "Sarvajna" in Sanskrit literally means "the all knowing". His father was Kumbara Malla and his mother was Mallaladevi. His birth anniversary is ...
(''lit.'' "The all knowing")—a
mendicant A mendicant (from la, mendicans, "begging") is one who practices mendicancy, relying chiefly or exclusively on alms to survive. In principle, mendicant religious orders own little property, either individually or collectively, and in many inst ...
and drifter Veerashaiva poet who left a deep imprint on Kannada speaking region and its people. His didactic ''Vachanas'', penned in the ''tripadi'' metre, constitute some of Kannada's most celebrated works. With the exception of some early poems, his works focus on his spiritual quest as a drifter.Prasad (1987), pp. 9–10 The pithy ''Vachanas'' contain his observations on the art of living, the purpose of life and the ways of the world.Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 191 He was not patronised by royalty, nor did he write for fame; his main aim was to instruct people about morality.Prasad (1987), pp. 5–6 The writing of Brahmin author
Lakshmisa Lakshmisa (or Lakshmisha, kn, ಲಕ್ಷ್ಮೀಶ) was a noted Kannada language writer who lived during the mid-16th or late 17th century. His most important writing, ''Jaimini Bharata'' is a version of the Hindu epic Mahabharata. The writi ...
(or Lakshmisha), a well-known story-teller and a dramatist, is dated to the mid-16th or late 17th century.Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 59 The ''Jaimini Bharata'', his version of the epic Mahabharata written in ''shatpadi'' metre, is one of the most popular poems of the late medieval period. A collection of stories, the poem includes the tale of the ''Sita Parityaga'' ("Repudiation of Sita"). The author successfully converted a religious story into a very human tale; it remains popular even in modern times.Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1182 The period also saw advances in dramatic works. Though there is evidence that theatre was known from the 12th century or earlier, modern Kannada theatre is traced to the rise of ''Yakshagana'' (a type of field play), which appeared in the 16th century.Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1077 The golden age of ''Yakshagana'' compositions was tied to the rule of King Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar II (1704–1714). A polyglot, he authored 14 ''Yakshaganas'' in various languages, although all are written in the Kannada script.Pranesh (2003), p. 37–38 He is credited with the earliest ''Yakshaganas'' that included ''sangeeta'' (music), ''nataka'' (drama) and ''natya'' (dance).Pranesh (2003), p. 37
Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar Krishnaraja Wadiyar III (14 July 1794 – 27 March 1868) was the twenty-second maharaja of the Kingdom of Mysore. Also known as Mummadi Krishnaraja Wadiyar, the maharaja belonged to the Wadiyar dynasty and ruled the kingdom for nearly seventy ...
(1794–1868), the ruler of the
princely state A princely state (also called native state or Indian state) was a nominally sovereign entity of the British Raj, British Indian Empire that was not directly governed by the British, but rather by an Indian ruler under a form of indirect rule, ...
of
Mysore Mysore (), officially Mysuru (), is a city in the southern part of the state of Karnataka, India. Mysore city is geographically located between 12° 18′ 26″ north latitude and 76° 38′ 59″ east longitude. It is located at an altitude of ...
, was another prolific writer of the era.Pranesh (2003), p. 53 More than 40 writings are attributed to him, including a poetic romance called ''Saugandika Parinaya'' written in two versions, ''sangatya'' and a drama.Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 26 His reign signalled the shift from classical genres to modern literature which was to be complemented by the influence of colonial period of India.


Modern period

The development of modern Kannada literature can be traced to the early 19th century when Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III and his court poets moved away from the ancient ''champu'' form of prose toward prose renderings of Sanskrit epics and plays. Kempu Narayana's ''Mudramanjusha'' ("Seal Casket", 1823) is the first modern novel written in Kannada. Modern Kannada literature was cross-fertilized by the colonial period in India as well.,Murthy in George K.M(1992), p. 167 with translations of Kannada works and dictionaries into European languages as well as other Indian languages, and vice versa, and the establishment of European style newspapers and periodicals in Kannada. In addition, in the 19th century, interaction with European technology, including new printing techniques accelerated the development of modern literature. The first Kannada newspaper called ''Mangalore Samachara'' was published by
Hermann Mögling Hermann Friedrich Mögling (1811–1881), also spelt Herrmann Friedrich Moegling, was a German missionary from the Basel Mission who spent most of his career in the western regions of the state of Karnataka, India. He is credited as the publishe ...
in 1843; and the first Kannada periodical, ''Mysuru Vrittanta Bodhini'' was published by Bhashyam Bhashyacharya in Mysore around the same time.
Hermann Mögling Hermann Friedrich Mögling (1811–1881), also spelt Herrmann Friedrich Moegling, was a German missionary from the Basel Mission who spent most of his career in the western regions of the state of Karnataka, India. He is credited as the publishe ...
translated Kannada classics into a series called ''Bibliotheca Carnataca'' during 1848–1853.,Kamath (1980), p. 279 while British officers Benjamin L. Rice and J. H. Fleet edited and published critical editions of literary classics, contemporary folk ballads and inscriptions. Following the rich tradition of dictionaries in Kannada since the 11th century, the first dictionaries expressing meanings of Kannada words in European languages were published in the 19th century, the most prominent of them being
Ferdinand Kittel Reverend Ferdinand Kittel was a Lutheran priest and indologist with the Basel Mission in south India and worked in Mangalore, Madikeri and Dharwad in Karnataka. He is most famous for his studies of the Kannada language and for producing a Kannada ...
's Kannada-English dictionary in 1894.Kamath (1980), p. 280 There was a push towards original works in prose narratives and a standardisation of prose during the late 19th century.Murthy (1992), pp. 168–169 Translations of works from English, Sanskrit and other Indian languages like Marathi and Bengali continued and accelerated. Lakshman Gadagkar's ''Suryakantha'' (1892) and Gulvadi Venkata Rao's ''
Indira Bai ''Indira Bai'' is an Indian novel in the Kannada language written by Gulavadi Venkata Rao (1844–1913). Published in 1899, it is considered the first modern novel in Kannada. It dealt with the hitherto ostracized practice of widow remarriage. A ...
'' (1899) signalled the move away from the highly stylised mores and aesthetics of prior Kannada works to modern prose, establishing the modern novel genre and fundamentally influencing the essay, literary criticism and drama genres.


Navodaya – A period of modern literature

At the dawn of the 20th century,
B. M. Srikantaiah Belluru Mylaraiah Srikantaiah (3 January 1884 – 5 January 1946), was an Indian author, writer and translator of Kannada literature. Prominent Students * V. Seetharamaiah * K. V. Puttappa Works * ''Gadayuddha Natakam'' (ಗದಾಯುದ ...
('B. M. Sri'), regarded as the "Father of modern Kannada literature",Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1077–78 called for a new era of writing original works in modern Kannada while moving away from archaic Kannada forms. This paradigmatic shift spawned an age of prolificacy in Kannada literature and came to be dubbed the ''Navodaya'' (''lit''. 'A new rise') period—a period of awakening. B. M. Sri led the way with his ''English Geethagalu'' ("English Songs")—a collection of poems translated from English set the tone for more translations using a standardisation of a modern written idiom.Murthy (1992), pp. 170–171 Original and seminal works which drew greatly from native and folk traditions also emerged alongside the translations. Stalwarts like S. G. Narasimhachar, Panje Mangesha Rao and Hattiangadi Narayana Rao also contributed with celebrated efforts. Literary subjects now veered from discussing kings and gods to more humanistic and secular pursuits. Kannada writers experimented with several forms of western literature, the novel and the short story in particular. The novel found an early champion in
Shivaram Karanth Kota Shivaram Karanth (10 October 1902 – 9 December 1997), also abbreviated as K. Shivaram Karanth, was an Indian polymath, who was a novelist in Kannada language, playwright and an ecological conservationist. Ramachandra Guha called him th ...
while another prominent writer, Masti Venkatesh Iyengar ('Masti'), laid the foundation for generations of story tellers to follow with his ''Kelavu Sanna Kathegalu'' ("A few Short Stories", 1920) and ''Sanna Kathegalu'' ("Short Stories", 1924).Murthy (1992), p. 172 The consolidation of modern drama was pioneered by T. P. Kailasam, with his ''Tollu Gatti'' ("The Hollow and the Solid", 1918). Kailasam followed this with ''Tali Kattoke Cooline'' ("Wages for tying the
Mangalsutra A mangala sutra (), or thaali (ISO: ''tāḷi''), is a necklace that the groom ties around the bride's neck in the Indian subcontinent, in a ceremony called ''Mangalya Dharanam'' (). The necklace serves as a visual marker of status as a ma ...
"), a critique on the
dowry A dowry is a payment, such as property or money, paid by the bride's family to the groom or his family at the time of marriage. Dowry contrasts with the related concepts of bride price and dower. While bride price or bride service is a payment b ...
system in marriage. His plays mainly focused on problems affecting middle class
Brahmin Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (guru ...
families: the dowry system, religious persecution, woes in the extended family system and exploitation of women. Novels of the early 20th century promoted a nationalist consciousness in keeping with the political developments of the time. While Venkatachar and Galaganath translated Bankim Chandra and Harinarayana Apte respectively, Gulvadi Venkata Rao, Kerur Vasudevachar and M. S. Puttanna initiated the movement toward realistic novels with their works. Aluru Venkatarao's ''Karnataka Gatha Vaibhava'' had a profound influence on the movement for Karnataka's unification. ;1925–50 – The Golden harvest While the first quarter of the 20th century was a period of experiment and innovation, the succeeding quarter was one of creative achievement. This period saw the rise of acclaimed
lyricist A lyricist is a songwriter who writes lyrics (the spoken words), as opposed to a composer, who writes the song's music which may include but not limited to the melody, harmony, arrangement and accompaniment. Royalties A lyricist's income ...
s whose works combined native folk songs and the mystic poetry of the medieval ''vachanas'' and ''kirthanas'' with influences from modern English romantics.Murthy (1992), p. 173–175 D. R. Bendre, with his collection of 27 poems including such masterpieces as ''Gari'' ("Wing", 1932), ''Nadaleele'' (1938) and ''Sakhigeetha'' (1940), was perhaps the most outstanding Kannada lyricist of the period.Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 413 His poems covered a wide range of themes including patriotism, love of nature, conjugal love, transcendental experiences and sympathy for the poor.Murthy (1992), p. 173
Govinda Pai Manjeshwar Govinda Pai (23 March 1883 – 6 September 1963), also known as Rastrakavi Govinda Pai, was a Kannada poet. He was awarded the first Rashtrakavi title by the Madras Government (Kasaragod district was part of South Kanara district of M ...
narrated the story of Christ's crucifixion in his work ''Golgotha'' (1931). The success of this work encouraged Pai to follow with three
panegyric A panegyric ( or ) is a formal public speech or written verse, delivered in high praise of a person or thing. The original panegyrics were speeches delivered at public events in ancient Athens. Etymology The word originated as a compound of grc, ...
s in 1947; ''Vaishakhi'', ''Prabhasa'' and ''Dehali'', narrated the last days of the
Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was ...
, God
Krishna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...
and
Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (; ; 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948), popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist Quote: "... marks Gandhi as a hybrid cosmopolitan figure who transformed ... anti- ...
respectively.Das (1995), p. 148 His ''Hebberalu'' ("Thumb", 1946) dramatises the story of
Drona Droṇa ( sa, द्रोण, Droṇa), also referred to as Dronacharya ( sa, द्रोणाचार्य, Droṇācārya), is a major character of the Hindu epic Mahabharata. In the epic, he serves as the royal preceptor of the Kaurav ...
and
Ekalavya Ekalavya (Sanskrit: एकलव्य, ''ékalavya'') is a character from the Indian epic Mahābhārata. He was a young prince of the Nishadas, a confederation of forest and hill tribes in ancient India. Ekalavya is called as one of the fore ...
, characters from the epic Mahabharata. K.V. Puttappa (' Kuvempu'), who would subsequently become Kannada's first
Jnanpith The Jnanpith Award is the oldest and the highest Indian literary award presented annually by the Bharatiya Jnanpith to an author for their "outstanding contribution towards literature". Instituted in 1961, the award is bestowed only on Indian w ...
awardee, demonstrated great talent in writing blank verse with his ''magnum opus'' ''
Sri Ramayana Darshanam Sri Ramayana Darshana (ಶ್ರೀ ರಾಮಾಯಣ ದರ್ಶನ) is the most popular work and the magnum opus by Kuvempu in Kannada based on the Hindu epic Ramayana. It earned him many distinctions including the Sahitya Akademi Award and t ...
'' (1949).Murthy (1992), p. 174 This work marks the beginning of modern Kannada
epic poetry An epic poem, or simply an epic, is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants. ...
. The work, through the use of metaphors and similes, focuses on the concept that all living creatures will eventually evolve into perfect beings.Punekar in Sahity Akademi (1992), pp. 4159–4160 Other important works of the period are Masti's ''Navaratri'' and P. T. Narasimhachar's ''Hanathe''.
D. V. Gundappa Devanahalli Venkataramanaiah Gundappa (17 March 1887 – 7 October 1975), popularly known as DVG, was an Indian writer, poet and philosopher in Kannada-language. He is one of the stalwarts of modern Kannada literature. His most notable work is th ...
's ''
Mankuthimmana Kagga ''Mankuthimmana Kagga'', written by Dr. D. V. Gundappa and published in 1943, is one of the best known of the major literary works in Kannada. It is widely regarded as a masterpiece of Kannada literature and is referred to as the Bhagavad Gita ...
'' ("Dull Thimma's Rigmarole", 1943) harkened back to the wisdom poems of the late medieval poet Sarvajna.Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1057 A celebrated writer of conjugal love poems, K. S. Narasimhaswamy won critical acclaim for ''Mysore Mallige'' ("Mysore Jasmine", 1942), a description of the bliss of everyday marital life.Murthy (1992), p. 175 Growth in poetic drama was inspired by B.M. Sri's ''Gadayuddha Natakam'' (1925), an adaptation of Ranna's medieval epic. While Kuvempu and B.M. Sri were inspired by old Kannada, Masti and later P. T. Narasimhachar ('Pu. Ti. Na') explored modern sensibilities in their ''Yashodhara'' (1938) and ''Ahalye'' (1940). The 1930s saw the emergence of Sriranga, who joined forces with Samsa and Kailasam to pen some of the most successful plays in Kannada.Murthy (1992), p. 176 Samsa completed his trilogy about Ranadhira Kantirava, a Mysore king of yore, with his ''Vijayanarasimha'' (1936) and ''Mantrashakti'' (1938). Kailasam's mastery over wit and stage rhetoric come to the fore in his ''Home Rule'' (1930) and ''Vaidyana Vyadi'' ("A Doctors Ailment", 1940) while he explores his serious side in ''Bhahishkara'' (1929); with ''Soole'' ("Prostitute", 1945), he unleashed his contempt for outdated quasi-religious mores. Societal ills were also examined in Bendre's ''Nageya Hoge'' ("Fumes of Laughter", 1936), and in Karanth's ''Garbhagudi'' ("Sanctum", 1932), which decried the exploitation of society in the name of religion.Murthy (1992), p. 177 The novel came of age during this period, with Karanth (''Chomana Dudi'', 1933), Masti (''Subbanna'', 1928) and Kuvempu ("Subbamma Heggadathi of Kanur", 1936) leading the charge.Murthy (1992), p. 178 Significantly, writers chose to carry on from where Puttanna, Gulvadi and Kerur had left off around the start of the 20th century rather than continue with popular translations in the style of Venkatachar and Galaganath. Aesthetic concerns replaced the didactic and a sense of form developed. Devudu Narasimha Shastri distinguished himself with his ''Antaranga'' (1931) and '' Mayura'' (1928); the former was a much acclaimed work which delved into the psychology of the protagonist, while the latter was a historical novel tracing the emergence of the Kadamba dynasty. Another high point of this period is Karanth's ''Marali Mannige'' (1942), the saga of three generations of a family, reflecting the social, cultural and economic developments of over a hundred years.Murthy (1992), p. 178–179
Literary criticism Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods. Th ...
, which had its beginnings in the first quarter-century, also made significant progress. B.M. Sri's ''Kannada Sahitya Charitre'' (1947), Gundappa's ''Sahitya Shakti'' (1950), Masti's ''Adikavi Valmiki'' (1935), Bendre's ''Sahitya Hagu Vimarshe'' ("Literature and Criticism", 1932) and Krishna Shastry's ''Samskrita Nataka'' (1937) are particularly notable. The essay, another form adopted from western literature, was richly served by A N Murthy Rao (''Hagaluganasugalu'', 1937), Gorur Ramaswamy Iyengar's ('Gorur') humorous ''Halliya Chitragalu'' (1930) and Karanth's ''Hucchu manassina Hattu mukhagalu'' (1948).Murthy (1992), p. 179


Late Navodaya and the rise of the progressives

As the ''Navodaya'' period waxed, the '' Pragatishila'' (progressives) movement led by novelist A. N. Krishna Rao ('Anakru') gained momentum in the early 1940s.Murthy (1992), p. 183 This left-leaning school contended that literature must be an instrument of social revolution and considered the ''Navodaya'' to be the product of aesthetes, too puritanical to be of any social relevance. This movement drew both established and young writers into its fold and, while it produced no poetry or drama of special merit, its contributions to short story and novel forms were appreciable. ''Pragatishila'' was credited with broadening readers' horizons; works produced during this period dealt extensively with subjects of everyday life, rural themes and the common man. The language was less inhibited and made generous use of colloquialism and slang. Anakru himself was a prolific writer of novels but the best works of this school are attributed to T. R. Subba Rao ('Ta Ra Su'), Basavaraju Kattimani and Niranjana. T. R. Subba Rao initially wrote short stories, although he later turned his talents to novels, which were popular. His early novels, ''Purushavatara'' and ''Munjavininda Munjavu'', told the stories of the underprivileged, the downtrodden and the outcast.Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4185 Best known among his novels—some of whose plots are centred on his native
Chitradurga Chitradurga is a city and the headquarters of Chitradurga district, which is located on the valley of the Vedavati river in the central part of the Indian state of Karnataka. Chitradurga is a place with historical significance which is locate ...
—are ''Masanada Hoovu'' ("Flower from a cemetery"), a story about the plight of prostitutes, and historical novel ''Hamsa Gite'' ("Swan Song"), a story about a dedicated musician of the late 18th century during annexation of Chitradurga by
Tipu sultan Tipu Sultan (born Sultan Fateh Ali Sahab Tipu, 1 December 1751 – 4 May 1799), also known as the Tiger of Mysore, was the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore based in South India. He was a pioneer of rocket artillery.Dalrymple, p. 243 He int ...
. Marked as its influence had been, the ''Pragatishila'' wave was already in decline by the close of the 1950s. Legendary writers of the previous era continued to produce notable works in the ''Navodaya'' style. In poetry, Bendre's ''Naku Tanti'' ("Four Strings", 1964) and Kuvempu's ''Aniketana'' (1964) stand out. V.K. Gokak brought out the innate insufficiencies of the more advanced western cultures in ''Indilla Nale'' (1965).Murthy (1992), pp. 179–180 ''Navodaya''-style novels continued to be successful with such noteworthy works as Karanth's ''Mookajjiya Kanasugalu'' ("Mookajji's visions", 1968), where Karanth explored the origins of man's faith in the mother goddess and the stages of evolution of civilisation. Kuvempu's ''Malegallali Madumagalu'' ("The Bride of the Hills", 1967) is about loving relationships that exist in every level of society.Murthy (1992), p. 180 Masti's two classic novels of this era were ''Channabasavanayaka'' (1950), which describe the defeat of Bidanur's chief Channabasava Nayaka (on Karnataka's coast) by Haider Ali in the late 18th century, and ''Chickavirarajendra'' (1950), which describes the fall of the tiny kingdom of
Coorg Kodagu (also known by its former name Coorg) is an administrative district in the Karnataka state of India. Before 1956, it was an administratively separate Coorg State, at which point it was merged into an enlarged Mysore State. It occupies ...
(ruled by
Chikka Virarajendra Chikavira Rajendra or Chikka Vira Rajendra (Kannada: , ''cika/cikka vīrarājendra'') (also in other variations, including Chikkaveera Rajendra), was the last ruler of the Kodagu (Coorg) kingdom in South India. His actual name was Vira Rajendra ...
) to the
British East India Company The East India Company (EIC) was an English, and later British, joint-stock company founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (the Indian subcontinent and Southea ...
.Murthy (1992) p. 181 The common theme in both works is the despotism and tyranny of the incumbent native rulers resulting in the intervention of a foreign power appearing on the scene to restore order, but with its own imperialistic intentions.Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 689 S. L. Bhyrappa, a charismatic young writer, first came to attention in the 1960s with his first novel ''Dharmasri'', although it was his ''Vamsavriksha'' ("Family Tree", 1966) that put him in the spotlight as one of Kannada's most popular novelists. It is a story of a respected scholar, Srinivasa Srotri, his family and their long-held values. The protagonist's young and widowed daughter-in-law wishes to remarry, putting his family tradition at risk.Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 429 Bhyrappa's best novel of the period was ''Grihabhanga'' ("Breaking of a Home", 1970), a story of a woman surviving under tragic circumstances. The characters in the story are rustic and often use vulgar language.Murthy (1992), p. 182 His other important novel is ''
Parva Parva may refer to: * PARVA, a gene * The 18 parvas, books or chapters of the ''Mahabharata'' * Parva (band), name of English band Kaiser Chiefs from 2000 to 2003 * ''Parva'' (2002 film), a Kannada language film by Sunil Kumar Desai * ''Parva ...
'', a major work in Kannada fiction acclaimed as an admirable attempt at recreating life on the sub-continent during the time of the epic Mahabharata.Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 430


Navya

In the 1950s, even as the ''Pragatishila'' merged back into the ''Navodaya'' mainstream, a new modernist school of writing called ''Navya'' emerged. Though formally inaugurated by
V. K. Gokak Vinayaka Krishna Gokak (9 August 1909 – 28 April 1992), abbreviated in Kannada as Vi. Kru. Gokak, was an Indian historian and writer in the Kannada language and a scholar of English and Kannada literatures. He was the fifth writer to be hono ...
with his ''Navya Kavitegalu'' ("Modern Poems", 1950), it was
Gopalakrishna Adiga Mogeri Gopalakrishna Adiga (1918–1992) was a modern Kannada poet. He is known by some commentators as the "pioneer of New style" poetry. The Hindu - 26 September 2002 Biography He was born in an orthodox brahmin family in coastal village of ...
who best exemplified the ethos of the movement. Poetry and, later, the short story became the most effective vehicles of the movement. With the passing of the Gandhian era and its influences, a new era in which to express modern sensibilities had arrived. The ''Navya'' writers questioned the time-honoured standards of plot of the ''Navodaya''; life was seen not as a pursuit of already existing values, but as an introspective search for them, occasionally narrated in stream of consciousness technique. Events and details were increasingly treated metaphorically and the short story grew closer to poetry.Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4049Handbook of Twentieth-Century Literatures of India, Nalini Natarajan, Emmanuel Sampath Nelson, p. 170, 1996, Gopalakrishna Adiga is considered the father of this form of expression with his ''Nadedu Banda Dari'' ("The Path Traversed", 1952) where he sought inspiration from T. S. Eliot and
W. H. Auden Wystan Hugh Auden (; 21 February 1907 – 29 September 1973) was a British-American poet. Auden's poetry was noted for its stylistic and technical achievement, its engagement with politics, morals, love, and religion, and its variety in ...
. His other well-known poems include ''Gondalapura'' ("Pandemonium", 1954) and ''Bhoota'' (1959).Murthy (1992), p. 184 G. S. Shivarudrappa made his mark in the Navya period with ''Mumbai Jataka'' ("A Horoscope of Bombay", 1966), which takes a closer look at urbanised society in
Mumbai Mumbai (, ; also known as Bombay — the official name until 1995) is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra and the ''de facto'' financial centre of India. According to the United Nations, as of 2018, Mumbai is the second- ...
. A protégé of Kuvempu, Shivarudrappa's fame came the peak of popularity of romantic poems with his ''Samagma'' ("Songs of Equanimity", 1951), poems distinguished by an idealistic bent. He continued to write poems in the same vein, although in his later poems there is a gradual shift to social issues with a streak of admiration for god's creation.Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4031 His critical essay, ''Anuranana'' (1980), is about the Vachana poets of the 12th century, their tradition, style and influence on later poets. K. S. Narasimhaswamy remained prominent through this era, writing such landmark poems as ''Silalate'' ("The Sculptured Creeper", 1958) and ''Gadiyaradangadiya Munde'' ("Before the Clock Shop").Murthy (1992), p. 665 Chandrashekhara Kambar, Chandrashekar Patil, P. Lankesh, and
K. S. Nissar Ahmed Kokkare Hosahalli Shekh Haider Nissar Ahmed (5 February 1936 – 3 May 2020) was an Indian poet and writer in the Kannada language. He was awarded the Padma Shri (2008), the Rajyotsava Award (1981) and the Pampa award for his work (2017). He be ...
are among the best-known later generation Navya poets.Murthy (1992), p. 185 Outstanding playwrights from this period are
Girish Karnad Girish Karnad (19 May 1938 – 10 June 2019) was an Indian actor, film director, Kannada writer, playwright and a Jnanpith awardee, who predominantly worked in South Indian cinema and Bollywood. His rise as a playwright in the 1960s marked the ...
, P. Lankesh, Chandrashekhara Kambara and Chandrashekar Patil. Karnad's ''Tughlaq'' (1964) portrays violence caused by idealism gone astray. Considered an important creation in Kannada theatre, the play depicts the 14th-century
Sultan Sultan (; ar, سلطان ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it ...
of
Delhi Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, primarily its western or right bank, Delhi shares borders w ...
,
Mohammad Tughlaq Muhammad bin Tughluq (1290 – 20 March 1351) was the eighteenth Sultan of Delhi. He reigned from February 1325 until his death in 1351. The sultan was the eldest son of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq, founder of the Tughlaq dynasty. In 1321, the youn ...
in contrasting styles, a tyrannical and whimsical ruler and at the same time, an idealist who sought the best for his subjects.Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4403 Most plays written by Karnad have either history or mythology as their theme, with a focus on their relevance to modern society. The most acclaimed novel of the era was ''Samaskara'' by
U.R.Anantha Murthy Udupi Rajagopalacharya Ananthamurthy (21 December 1932 – 22 August 2014) was an Indian contemporary writer and critic in the Kannada language. He was born in Thirtahalli Taluk and is considered one of the pioneers of the Navya movement. In 199 ...
(1965). The novel details the search for new values and identity by the protagonist, a Brahmin, who had sexual intercourse with the untouchable mistress of his heretic adversary.Murthy (1992), p. 187 Another notable work is the ''Swarupa'' (1966) by
Poornachandra Tejaswi Kuppali Puttappa Poornachandra Tejaswi (8 September 1938 – 5 April 2007) was a prominent Indian writer and novelist in Kannada. He also worked as a photographer, publisher, painter, naturalist, and environmentalist. He made a great impress ...
. Anantha Murthy's ''Prasne'' (1963) contains his best collection of short stories including ''Ghatashraddha'', which describes the tragedy that befell a young pregnant widow, from the point of view of a boy. His collection ''Mouni'' (1973) includes the stories ''Navilugulu'' ("Peacocks") and ''Clip Joint''.Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 165 The Navya movement was not without its critics. The doubt, dilemmas and indecision in every turn of the plot resulted in increasingly sophisticated and complex narrations, which some readers found uninteresting. It was derided as an intellectual exercise of the middle class intelligentsia; in its extreme sophistication, it was thought to have lost its touch with realities of life. This led to a gradual waning of the Navya school as it was supplanted by emerging waves of ''Navyottara'', ''Bandaya'' (protest) and ''
Dalit Dalit (from sa, दलित, dalita meaning "broken/scattered"), also previously known as untouchable, is the lowest stratum of the Caste system in India, castes in India. Dalits were excluded from the four-fold Varna (Hinduism), varna syste ...
'' schools.


Post-modern trends

From the early 1970s, a segment of writers including many "Navya" writers started to write novels and stories that were anti-"Navya". This genre was called ''Navyottara'' and sought to fulfil a more socially responsible role.Sahitya Akademi (1992), p 4308Sahitya Akademi (1992), p 4309 The best-known authors in this form of writing were
Poornachandra Tejaswi Kuppali Puttappa Poornachandra Tejaswi (8 September 1938 – 5 April 2007) was a prominent Indian writer and novelist in Kannada. He also worked as a photographer, publisher, painter, naturalist, and environmentalist. He made a great impress ...
and
Devanur Mahadeva Devanoora Mahadeva is an Indian writer and intellectual who writes in Kannada language. The Government of India conferred upon him the Padma Shri award, the fourth highest civilian award. Known among literary circles to be a rebel, Mahadeva re ...
. In his preface to Abachurina Post Office, Tejaswi expressed a path breaking observation towards then prevailing literary movements. Tejaswi won the "most creative novel of the year" for his '' Karvalo'' in 1980 and ''Chidambara Rahasya'' in 1985 from the Sahitya Akademi. Modernisation and westernisation continue to inform sensibilities and spawn new literary techniques and genres.Murthy (1992), p 189 The most striking developments in recent times have been the rise of the prose form to a position of predominance — a position earlier held by poetry — and the prodigious growth in dramatic literature. More recently ''Bandaya'' (Rebellion) and Dalit literature, in some ways a throwback to the ''Pragatishila'' (
Progressivism Progressivism holds that it is possible to improve human societies through political action. As a political movement, progressivism seeks to advance the human condition through social reform based on purported advancements in science, tec ...
) days, have come to the fore. Mahadeva's ''Marikondavaru'' ("Those who sold themselves") and ''Mudala Seemeli Kole Gile Ityadi'' ("Murder in the Eastern Region") are examples of this trend. Kannada writers have been presented with 8 Jnanpith awards, 63 Sahitya Akademi awards and 9
Sahitya Akademi Fellowship The Sahitya Akademi Fellowship is a literary honour in India bestowed by the Sahitya Akademi, India's National Academy of Letters.Quote: "In his acceptance speech when India's National Academy of Letters (Sahitya Akademi) in 1997 conferred its h ...
s in India, and numerous other national and international awards since India's independence.


Notes


References

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Kannada Literature Kannada literature, Indian literature Literature of Karnataka Literature by language Indian literature by language